Place and Society: Local to Global This course is an introduction to how geographers view the world and contribute to our understanding of it. Where do the phenomena of human experience occur? Why are they there? What is the significance? These questions are fundamental for explaining the world at different scales from the global to the local. Throughout, we will focus on the spatial basis of society, its continual reorganization through time, and how various human and environmental problems can be usefully analyzed from a geographic perspective.

Human Geography with GIS How do geographers study spatial interactions between people and the environment? How does socio-economic status relate to spatial patterns of settlement, social organization, access to resources, and exposure to risks? How can geographic information systems (GIS) help geographers explain these spatial patterns and processes? In this course we will apply GIS to a wide range of topics in human geography including urban, environmental, political, hazards, and health. We will learn how to gather, create, analyze, visualize, and critically interpret geographic data through tutorials, collaborative labs, and independent work that culminate in cartographic layouts of our results.

Research Craft in Human Geography Whether you are planning to do your own research or want to be a more savvy consumer of research produced by others, it is useful to develop an understanding of the process of creating, discovering, and interpreting information about the world. In this course, students will explore quantitative and qualitative methodologies and the ways they can be used in human geography research. Through examples, exercises, and readings, students will learn the types of questions different techniques are designed to answer, how they work, and how to interpret the results. Students will gain hands on experience conducting surveys, generating and interpreting qualitative data, selecting and implementing statistical analyses, and writing research reports, to build competence and critical awareness in the practice and communication of research.

Mapping Global Environmental Change How do geographers use geospatial technologies to observe the Earth’s surface? How do geographers use this information to interpret changes in the global environment across space and time? In this course we will learn how to work with large geographic datasets to explore patterns and changes to the Earth’s surface at local to global scales. Case studies will use remotely-sensed images to study land cover, climate, weather, wildfire, and other topics. Students will learn concepts, methods, and ethics for using a cloud-based geospatial analysis platform to process data, critically interpret workflows and results, and communicate findings with web maps and graphics.

The Global Environment (formerly GEOG 0206) This course will provide an introduction to the study of the physical environment, with an emphasis on how environmental systems interact. The first half of the course will focus on Earth’s climate, specifically, Earth’s energy budget, the greenhouse effect, global wind and weather patterns, and global ocean circulation patterns. The second half of the course will focus on patterns and processes of the Earth’s surface by examining global patterns of vegetation and the creation of landforms by fluvial, glacial, and aeolian processes. We will use this foundation to understand how our rapidly changing climate will alter each of these systems.

Geographies of Globalization Globalization has long roots in history. At its core, it involves processes that connect places and people through the flow of ideas, technology, goods, and information, which as they move from place to place and are adopted, disrupts local and indigenous cultures, economies, and even political systems. These processes tend to homogenize cultures and tastes and are therefore a source of conflict over heritage, memory, and power. These clashes over the “nature” of society embody the global-local divide. In this course we will interrogate not only when and how the flow of goods and ideas occur but the where, as well. We will examine the geographical impact of these flows, and question why some people/places are more affected by globalization than others. 3 hr lecture.

Border Geographies We live in an age of intense globalization with near instantaneous transfers of information and unprecedented movements of goods and people across the world. At the same time, there are more walls constructed between countries today than ever before.  How do we explain this paradox of increasingly restrictive borders in an age of globalizing flows?  In this course we will trace the history of political borders, critically evaluate theories in the scholarly literature about borders and flows, and investigate strategies, experiences, and imaginaries that produce different border-scapes and representations. Students will be actively engaged in unraveling the paradox of walls and flows through group research projects on specific border regimes around the world.

The Global Environment This course will provide an introduction to the study of the physical environment, with an emphasis on how environmental systems interact. The first half of the course will focus on Earth’s climate, specifically, Earth’s energy budget, the greenhouse effect, global wind and weather patterns, and global ocean circulation patterns. The second half of the course will focus on patterns and processes of the Earth’s surface by examining global patterns of vegetation and the creation of landforms by fluvial, glacial, and aeolian processes. We will use this foundation to understand how our rapidly changing climate will alter each of these systems.

Land and Livelihoods - From Local to Global How do flows of money, people, materials, and ideas connect local livelihoods to distant sites and global processes? How do geographers study patterns of poverty and inequality at different scales?  How do we define human development and wellbeing, how do we determine who participates, and why does it matter?  In this course we will draw from perspectives in fields ranging from development geography and political ecology to post-colonial studies to examine livelihood dynamics in the Global South. We will use texts, interviews, writing assignments, problem sets, and mapping exercises to explore relationships between economy, identity, and place in an increasingly connected world.

Human Geography of Hazards Why do storms, earthquakes, and other hazards result in disastrous loss of life in some places, and only minor losses in others?  In this course we will study human geographies of population, economic development, politics, and culture to explain the diverse outcomes from biophysical hazards.  We will compare hazard geographies at the global, regional, and local scales using diverse approaches, including quantitative analysis, geographic information systems (GIS), and comparative case studies.  We will examine how geographic analysis and technologies are used in disaster planning and response.  We will practice applying human geography theory and methods to hazards research through practical exercises, exams, and research projects.

Geopolitics and International Development This course critically examines theories and practices of development in the “global-South,” where in many cases development has been inextricably related to foreign interests of donor countries in the West and of Brazil, India, and China. We will emphasize the importance of territory, security, statehood, and sovereignty in the development process and highlight the evolving nexus between geopolitics and development, with a special emphasis on Africa. We will probe the connections between "development" and "underdevelopment," and ask questions about the possible impact of South-South vs. the historical North-South development. We will focus on the contribution of development to progress, on the one hand, and to its stagnation, on the other, and focus on specific issues like food, population dynamics, resources, and rural- urban relationship.

Urban Geography Urban landscapes are the expression of economic, political, and socio-cultural processes layered on top of each other in particular time-space contexts. In this course, students will theoretically and empirically examine the complex and dynamic urban landscape. Students will gain a theoretical understanding of the location of cities within a larger global economic system of cities, along with the internal organization of economic, cultural, and social functions within cities. We will also examine the processes behind contemporary urban issues such as homelessness, boosterism, urban renewal, gentrification, poverty, and crime.

Population Geography Through a combination of lectures, readings, and exercises, this course provides background and analytical experience in the spatial dimensions of population dynamics. Students will theoretically and empirically examine geographic variations in natural increase, domestic and international migration, infant mortality, disease, and hunger. Topics will include the intersection of settlement-environment-disease, circular migration systems, cultural influences on demographic processes, and linkages between international and domestic migration flows. We will also assess various policy options and their effectiveness in addressing important demographic issues. The exercises will expose students to the vast amount of population data publicly available and introduce them to techniques used to examine and assess population related issues.

Rural Geography This course explores the intersection between demographic, economic, cultural, and environmental forces on the rural landscape in both advanced economies and LDCs. Students will be exposed to theoretical and empirical approaches to rural development in different international and regional contexts, as well as problems associated with these development paradigms. Particular attention will be paid to neoliberal economic policies and their impacts on rural areas, and the course will frequently draw on examples from New England and North America. Additionally, the world is becoming increasingly urbanized, so we will examine the ways people come to know rural areas through the media, literature, and travel. This course includes opportunity for service learning.

Geopolitics of the Middle East This course examines the Middle East from a geographical perspective with emphasis on the historical and political underpinnings of the region. The Middle East, the cradle of civilization, has been, due to its geography, one of the major arenas for political and ideological conflicts. It has been subject to an unequal power relationship with the West, which, together with Islam, has affected the level of its political, social, and economic development. This course will provide an analytical introduction to the historical, political, social, and economic geography of the region and will analyze the major transitions this region has undergone. 3 hrs.lect.

Urban Africa The era of rural Africa is over. Today, 40% of sub-Saharan Africans live in cities – seen as places with  social services, economic opportunities, and accessible technology. Yet, African cities are also places of unemployment, social services challenges, and increasing inequality. In this course we will take a  cross-disciplinary approach to the study of urban Africa through scholarly readings, media critiques,  discussions, and data analysis. We will identify similarities and differences in the process of  urbanization in Africa vis-à-vis other world regions. Students will actively contribute to our critical  inquiry into African cities through individual research projects and in-class presentations. 3 hrs. lect

Geopolitics of Europe The course examines what is arguably the most influential region in the world from a geographic perspective. First, we will chart the complex geopolitical dimensions of Europe in an attempt to understand what unites this highly differentiated region. Next, we will critically evaluate the main European political body, the European Union. Then we will analyze the political, social, economic, and environmental challenges that threaten to destabilize Europe. Finally, we will try to assess the degree to which political power in Europe has acquired a "European" dimension at the grassroots level by investigating political activism across borders of individual countries. Students will be actively involved in this study through a research project that culminates in a conference on the Future of Europe at the end of the semester.

Environmental Change in Latin America This course examines Latin America from a geographical perspective with emphasis on the social, political and ecological underpinnings of change in the region. Building upon the theme of global environmental change in the context of human-environment geography, we will explore urgent challenges linked to the agricultural and extractive industries, urban expansion, land grabs, land reform, indigenous rights, and rural and urban poverty.

Cartography How do maps work? What are their intended uses and impacts? How do maps differ across cultures and times? In this course we will explore these questions through a series of practical exercises, readings, discussions, and critiques. We will learn fundamental concepts, principles, and patterns for using graphics to depict geographical ideas. We will practice both manual and digital methods for making maps, including GIS and graphics software, and compare frameworks and paradigms for evaluating map style and use.

A Black Sense of Place: Black Geographies Black feminist geographer, Katherine McKittrick, defines Black geographies as “subaltern or alternative geographic patterns that work alongside and beyond traditional geographies and a site or terrain of struggle” (2006, 7). This Black studies approach structures analyses of geographies across the Black diaspora in this course. Students will explore the relationships between race, racisms, space, and place through an interdisciplinary examination of the intimate, the material, the political, the body, and the collective as “sites of struggle.” We will read from texts such as Clyde Woods’ Development Drowned and Reborn: The Blues and Bourbon Restorations in Post-Katrina New Orleans and Erica Lorraine Williams’ Sex Tourism in Bahia: Ambiguous Entanglements.

Mapping Global Environmental Change (formerly GEOG 0150) How do geographers use geospatial technologies to observe the Earth’s surface? How do geographers use this information to interpret changes in the global environment across space and time? In this course we will learn how to work with large geographic datasets to explore patterns and changes to the Earth’s surface at local to global scales. Case studies will use remotely-sensed images to study land cover, climate, weather, wildfire, and other topics. Students will learn concepts, methods, and ethics for using a cloud-based geospatial analysis platform to process data, critically interpret workflows and results, and communicate findings with web maps and graphics.

Human Geography with GIS (formerly GEOG 0120) How do geographers study spatial interactions between people and the environment? How does socio-economic status relate to spatial patterns of settlement, social organization, access to resources, and exposure to risks? How can geographic information systems (GIS) help geographers explain these spatial patterns and processes? In this course we will apply GIS to a wide range of topics in human geography including urban, environmental, political, hazards, and health. We will learn how to gather, create, analyze, visualize, and critically interpret geographic data through tutorials, collaborative labs, and independent work that culminate in cartographic layouts of our results.

Cartography (formerly GEOG 0231) What are the timeless elements of maps that make them useful, informative, and beautiful? In this course we will explore how purpose, scale, culture, technology, geography, and other factors interact to influence the look of maps, and we will learn how to incorporate good examples of map-making into our own creative work. We will compare different ways to read and evaluate maps and discuss concepts, principles, and theories that help explain reasons for good map design. Through a series of practical exercises, we will apply methods with computer software and create a final original project with a public critique.

Placebased Data Analysis (formerly GEOG 0139) Who migrates from urban areas during a pandemic? How are livelihoods distributed around protected areas in Central Africa? How much does location influence the price of a house? In this course students will discover ways  to answer questions like these by introducing fundamentals for generating and analyzing data about people and the places they are connected to. Students will practice constructing datasets, visualizing relationships, formulating and testing hypotheses, modeling outcomes, and conveying results. We will cover descriptive and inferential statistics, focusing on geographic applications and the unique complexities of spatial data. Through cases and problem sets, students will explore complementarities between quantitative and qualitative analysis, emphasizing critical and reflexive approaches. Labs will build proficiency with software packages like R and GeoDa. The course aims to make students more savvy consumers of published work, to produce careful analysts, and to foster a deeper appreciation for the research process. No prior experience with Statistics or Geography is required; the course is designed to introduce students to approaches broadly relevant in Geography and allied social sciences.

Conservation Planning Conservation planners try to identify and protect places with natural and cultural values. In this course we will investigate geographical concepts and methods for interpreting landscape change, inventorying natural resources, and evaluating conservation plans. We will examine the contributions and limitations of maps and geographic information systems in conservation planning through a combination of computer-based analyses, field investigations, readings, writing workshops, and discussions. The Town of Middlebury will provide a case study and students will develop independent projects that compare Middlebury to other towns in Vermont. (GEOG 0150).

Open Source Geographic Information Science In this course, we will study geographic information science (GIScience) by reproducing published research with open-source geospatial software. We will debate issues in GIScience by applying critical GIS scholarship, fundamentals of spatial data and analysis, and evidence from our reproduction studies. We will practice open GIScience by collaboratively developing research plans, acquiring and describing spatial data, analyzing and visualizing data with SQL and R, and testing for error and uncertainty. Our research products and results will be published with open science standards in public portfolios. We typically investigate research with themes of human-environment interactions, health, hazards, urban development, and more.These research themes require and integrate social/demographic data, environmental data, and big data.

Practicing Human Geography Whether you are planning to do your own research or want to be a more savvy consumer of research produced by others, it is useful to develop an understanding of the process of creating, discovering, and interpreting information about the world. In this course, students will explore quantitative and qualitative methodologies and the ways they can be used in human geography research. Through examples, exercises, and readings, students will learn the types of questions different techniques are designed to answer, how they work, and how to interpret the results. Students will gain hands on experience conducting surveys, generating and interpreting qualitative data, selecting and implementing statistical analyses, and writing research reports, to build competence and critical awareness in the practice and communication of research.

Applied Remote Sensing: Land Use in Sub-Saharan Africa Satellite images are indispensable for mapping forest cover, agriculture, and other land uses. Off-the-shelf products struggle to capture features in complex landscapes, such as fine-scale forest  changes, urban sprawl, or small agricultural fields. In this course we will focus on sub-Saharan Africa  to investigate select land uses with remote sensing techniques, discuss their social contexts, and  practice novel approaches for generating land use maps. Students will be actively engaged in  carrying out analyses and critical interpretations throughout the semester. Their work will culminate  in a web-based portfolio, which will provide an opportunity to learn effective communication of  research findings.  (GEOG150 or GEOL0222 or by instructor permission) GEOG 120 is recommended

Conservation Planning (formerly GEOG 0310) Conservation planners try to identify and protect places with natural and cultural values. In this course we will investigate geographical concepts and methods for interpreting landscape change, inventorying natural resources, and evaluating conservation plans. We will examine the contributions and limitations of maps and geographic information systems in conservation planning through a combination of computer-based analyses, field investigations, readings, writing workshops, and discussions. The Town of Middlebury will provide a case study and students will develop independent projects that compare Middlebury to other towns in Vermont. (GEOG 0150).

Water Resources and Hydrogeology Fresh water is the most fundamental resource sustaining life on the planet. In this course we examine all elements of the hydrologic cycle, focusing first on precipitation and surface water flow and then on subsurface flow. We study examples from across the globe to understand factors influencing water quality and availability, and apply mathematical approaches to quantify constraints on sustainable use. The consequences of climate change and other anthropogenic impacts to the hydrological cycle are examined, and current issues and policies are discussed in light of increasing demands on water resources and associated natural systems. (formerly GEOL 0255)

Open Geographic Information Science (formerly GEOG 0323) In this course we will study geographic information science (GIS) with open-source software and critical GIS scholarship. In labs, we will practice techniques to include: data acquisition and preparation for analysis, spatial SQL database queries, automating analysis, spatial interpolation, testing sensitivity to error and uncertainty, and data visualization. We will read and apply critical research of GIS as a subject and with GIS as a methodology. Spatial data sources for labs and independent research projects may include remote sensing, micro-data, smart cities and open government data, and volunteered geographic information (e.g. OpenStreetMap and social media).

Cartographic Design (formerly GEOG 0325) In this course we will study principles of cartographic design in the digital era. Major topics will include cartography before computing, reference map design, thematic map design, and atlas production. Laboratory exercises will develop workflows for cartographic design with geographic information systems and graphics software. Through authentic projects and group critiques, students will learn to design cartographic products that facilitate spatial thinking and effectively communicate geographic information to specialist and lay audiences.

Fieldwork in Geography: Constructing Place-based Data (formerly GEOG 0339) From the presence of wildlife to the preferences of community members, we often want to understand more than we can see using satellite imagery, census tables, and existing data products alone. In this course, we will practice constructing primary data. Exploring a range of approaches from interviews to transects, we will pay attention to sources of bias, our own positionality, and the kinds of decisions one confronts when generating data. This course will provide foundational skills for students interested in conducting their own research and useful insight for interpreting data collected by others. Be prepared to spend several labs outdoors and off-campus in ‘the field’. Prerequisites: GEOG 281 or another GEOG class numbered 250-299.

Seminar in Human-Environment Geography: Landscapes in Transition  What will Vermont look like in 100 years? What about the Brazilian Amazon, the Albertine Rift, or your home town? In this seminar, we will explore the ways that processes of change discussed in our thematic Geography classes like urbanization, climate change, gentrification, commoditization, 'globalization', and more may interact and play out in the future. We will discuss studies of historic and ongoing landscape transitions and conduct our own studies of student-selected places, focusing both on the changes most likely to occur given existing trajectories, and attempting to imagine and articulate what changes would be desirable.

Seminar in Population Geography: Migration in the Twenty-first Century On average, 20 percent of the U.S. population changes residence in any given year, yet the scale, geography, motivations, and impacts of these movements are highly variable, making migration an incredibly pervasive and complex phenomenon. Furthermore, international immigration continues to attract considerable academic, political, and media attention. This course will explore contemporary approaches to migration studies emphasizing the important insights and contributions of geographers. How have geographers examined migration, and how have geographical approaches changed over time? In what ways has technology influenced the motivations, frequency, and implications of migration behavior? What are the different impacts of migration on individuals, households, and communities? And, what are the new innovations in scholarly approaches to migration? Through a combination of readings from contemporary migration literature, discussions, and analyses, students in this seminar will gain an appreciation for and understanding of this incredibly rich and complex phenomena of migration.

Seminar in Political Geography: Radical Geographies  Geography has always been associated with the exercise of power and came into being as an academic discipline because it supported imperialism, nationalism, and war. However, the field of geography also has a lesser-known emancipatory tradition that emphasizes social justice, empowerment, and resistance to oppression. Early radical voices—anarchists, socialists, and pacifists—were silenced and often forced into exile.  It was only in the context of the protest culture of the 1960s that radical geographies started to find an audience.  In this seminar we will examine how geography and geographers have engaged in revolutionary activism, education for justice, social mobilization, and theorizations of alternative models of society.

Seminar in Geographies of Climate Change Adaptation and Development Rapid anthropogenic climate change cannot be fully mitigated, requiring humans to adapt to changing climate conditions.  How will developing countries with high sensitivity and few resources manage to adapt to a changing climate?  Geography is uniquely suited to research social dimensions of climate change by integrating human and physical geography in the traditions of hazards, human-environment systems, and political ecology research.  In this seminar we will contrast approaches to three related concepts: resilience, vulnerability, and adaptation.  We will review their use in current academic research and literature, international climate negotiations, and adaptation planning and financing in least developed countries.  We will culminate the seminar with independent research into a particular case of planned climate change adaptation in a least developed country.

Terrorism Terrorism has taken on new dimensions in an age dominated by technology and mass media. It has continued to cause carnage as terrorists around the globe continue to resist violently real or perceived oppression. In this course we will examine the breeding grounds for terrorist activities and interrogate the global connections behind local and national extremist/terrorist groups. We will explore ethno-national and religious terrorist groups from Asia, Europe, and Latin America, and probe white supremacist groups in the U.S. The aim of the course is to develop critical understanding of the phenomenon of terrorism, the local-global connections, and the challenges associated with terrorism in the 21st century.

Spaces of Exception A multidisciplinary course, using the tools of geography, architecture, sociology, and political science, looking at spaces around the world that are set apart – legally, socially, and infrastructurally – from their surrounding environments. These spaces include refugee camps, American Indian reservations, migrant detention centers, Guantanamo Bay, autonomous zones, gated communities and government housing, concentration and internment camps, etc. Drawing on philosophers such as Giorgio Agamben, Carl Schmitt, and Walter Benjamin who theorized the term “state of exception”, we will use a spatial lens to study cases from around the world, past and present. How were these spaces formed, why do they exist, and what do they tell us, both about themselves and the world that surrounds them?  Matt Peterson directed the documentary features Scenes from a Revolt Sustained (2015) and Spaces of Exception (2019), and co-edited the books In the Name of the People (2018), The Mohawk Warrior Society (2022), and The Reservoir (2022). He is an organizer at Woodbine, an experimental space in New York City.  Malek Rasamny directed the documentary Spaces of Exception (2019), and co-edited the book The Mohawk Warrior Society (2022). He is currently a doctoral candidate at Paris Nanterre University where he is researching the social phenomenon of reincarnation amongst the Druze of Lebanon./

Data Science Across Disciplines In this course, we will gain exposure to the entire data science pipeline—obtaining and cleaning, large and messy data sets, exploring these data and creating engaging visualizations, and communicating insights from the data in a meaningful manner. During morning sessions, we will learn the tools and techniques required to explore new and exciting data sets. During afternoon sessions, students will work in small groups with one of several faculty members on domain-specific research projects in Biology, Geography, History, Mathematics/Statistics and Sociology. This course will use the R programming language. No prior experience with R is necessary.  BIOL 1230: Students enrolled in Professor Casey’s (Biology) afternoon section will use the tools of data science to investigate the drivers of tick abundance and tick-borne disease risk. To do this students will draw from a nation-wide ecological database.  GEOG 1230: In this section, we will investigate human vulnerability to natural hazards in the United States using location-based text data about hurricane and flood disasters from social media. We will analyze data qualitatively, temporally, and spatially to gain insights into the human experience of previous disasters and disaster response. We will present findings using spatial data visualizations with the aim of informing future disaster preparedness and resilience.  HIST 1230: In U.S. history, racial differences and discrimination have powerfully shaped who benefited from land and farm ownership. How can historians use data to understand the history of race and farming? Students will wrangle county- and state-level data from the U.S. Census of Agriculture from 1840-1912 to create visualizations and apps that allow us to find patterns in the history of race and land, to discover new questions we might not know to ask, and to create tools to better reveal connections between race, land, and farming for a general audience.    STAT 1230: In this course students will dive into the world of data science by focusing on invasive species monitoring data. Early detection is crucial to controlling many invasive species; however, there is a knowledge gap regarding the sampling effort needed to detect the invader early. In this course, we will work with decades of invasive species monitoring data collected across the United States to better understand how environmental variables play a role in the sampling effort required to detect invasive species. Students will gain experience in the entire data science pipeline, but the primary focus will be on data scraping, data visualization, and communication of data-based results to scientists and policymakers.  SOCI 1230:  Do sports fans care about climate change? Can sports communication be used to engage audiences on environmental sustainability? In this section of the course, students will use the tools of data science to examine whether interest in sports is associated with climate change knowledge, attitudes and behaviors, as well as other political opinions. Participants will use survey data to produce visualizations and exploratory analyses about the relationship between sports fandom and attitudes about environmental sustainability.

Alex Lyford

Carol Harden

David Allen

David Fastovich

Derrick Burt

Guntram Herb

Jeff Howarth

Jessica L'Roe

Joseph Holler

Khyree Davis

Niwaeli Kimambo

Peter Nelson

Peter Ryan

Timi Mayer

William Hegman

Read 205 reviews for Geography courses at Middlebury College. Find the best Geography professors and courses.  Discover your new major today!

Great class. Effectively teaches both R and Statistics within a geographical context. L'Roe is enthusiastic, and definitely has a passion for the subject. Grades consisted of 3 problem sets, a Midterm, and a Final project. Exam is not particularly difficult, and everything is fairly graded

This class was very boring in my opinion. I thought that the topic was sorta interesting but we kept on talking about the same stuff and it got redundant. I thought that this class was very specific in its material, so you should make sure you like the topic if u take this class. Overall, very easy class. I didn't do the readings.

I took this course as required for my major; however, I was relatively disappointed with what I got out from this course. While there were extenuating circumstances that contributed to my lack of excitement for the course material, the curriculum was relatively unstructured and somewhat random. The two major essays were extremely open-ended, but so open-ended to the point where I was questioning what I was getting out of writing them. Maybe I'm just simply uninterested in studying Earth's climate and environmental geography, but the class having a lot of busy work that only sometimes amounted to a class discussion made it not as enjoyable as it could have been.